Serendipity, Error, and Exaptation

Innovations can come about by careful planning and experimentation, but also can come about accidentally by serendipity, error, and exaptation.  These terms will be explained below.

An Invention that Came About by Serendipity

Microwave Ovens were discovered serendipitously.  In 1945, Percy Spencer, a self-taught engineer that worked for Raytheon, was working on microwave based communications systems (similar to radar, but microwave based communication systems are based upon a higher frequency electromagnetic wave than are radio wave based radar systems).  When working with one of these microwave devices Percy noticed that his pants were getting hot and a chocolate candy bar in his pocket melted.  The microwave communications system was clearly emanating energy as heat.  Percy realized immediately that this could be used to heat food quickly, and Raytheon immediately got a patent for a microwave oven.  However, it wasn't until 1967 that microwave ovens were small enough to go into peoples' kitchens.  This is when the microwave oven craze took off.

An Invention that Came About by Error

Micro-electromechanical Systems or MEMS.  MEMS, which are small (1 cubic millimeter) silicon chips that can function as sensors.  They were discovered by a lab error.  Jamie Link was a graduate student at U.C Berkeley in Engineering working on silicon chips.  In one of her experiments she broke the chip she was working on into many small fragments, i.e., by a lab error.  However, she discovered that some of these fragments were able to function as sensors.  Further work was done by DARPA (the Defense Department) to develop these small chip fragments into what they named Micro-electromechanical Systems or MEMS.  MEMS can detect physical properties like temperature, light, chemicals, magnetism, or vibrations and convert the information into electronic signals that can be uploaded to a computer for data analysis.  

An Invention That Came About by Exaptation

An example of exaptation may be the change in use or repurposing of metal detectors.  The metal detector was invented in 1881 by Alexander Graham Bell.  Metal detectors were originally used in the 60's in looking for metals underground in mining operations, and also in wartime (Vietnam and other wars) to locate buried landmines.  A similar use was by individual looking for precious items underground such as rings or jewelry.  An exaptation or reuse of the metal detector is the modern use at airports and other places of events to insure that no-one entering the airport or venue is carrying a gun or metal weapon. This clearly was a repurposing of an invention, i.e., it was an exaptation.

Meaning of the Terms

Serendipity

Serendipity refers to an accidental discovery (Wade, 2012).  Many great innovations have been discovered accidentally, i.e., serendipitously.  One of the most famous serendipitous discoveries is penicillin.  

Error

Discoveries by error are cases where something that wouldn't have been discovered in all probably by a normal process was discovered to some error (Davila and Epstein, 2014).  Examples are experiments that go wrong and someone accidentally discovers something.

Exaptation 

Exaptation is repurposing of an invention.   I.e., something is invented to do one thing and later that invention is used to do something else not originally conceived of.  The original terms comes from evolutionary biology where a trait is readapted for a different use than was originally intended.  An example is some dinosaurs had features (for warmth) but later some of these species evolved into birds that used the feathers for flying.  However, as concerns technological exaptation,  this would mean finding a new use for a technology which was not part of its original intended use.  

References

Wade, W. (2012).  Scenario Planning:  A Field Guide to the Future.  John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,   Hoboken, New Jersey.

Davila, T., Epstein, M. (2014).  The Innovation Paradox.  Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc., San     Francisco, California.